The Campaign Knows What You’re Afraid Of
How political organizations use consumer data, targeting models, and behavioral insights in modern election campaigns.
Part 5 of 10 in the “Who’s Buying Your Data?” series
In recent election cycles, political campaigns have increasingly relied on data-driven strategies to reach voters. These approaches combine publicly available voter records with consumer and behavioral data purchased from third-party providers.
One widely cited example is Cambridge Analytica, which in 2016 collected Facebook user data through a personality quiz application. In many cases, data from users who did not directly interact with the app was also collected through social connections. The company used this information to create voter profiles intended to support targeted political messaging.
Public scrutiny of these practices increased in 2018. Facebook later agreed to a $725 million settlement related to privacy violations, and Cambridge Analytica ceased operations. While that company no longer exists, the broader practice of data-driven political targeting has continued to evolve.
Today, political campaigns have access to larger datasets, more advanced analytical tools, and more channels for targeted messaging than in previous election cycles.
Political Spending on Voter Data
In 2020, political organizations reported spending more than 23 million dollars with at least 37 different data brokers for voter-related information. Public disclosures provide only partial visibility into this activity, and total spending may be higher.
Campaigns typically begin with voter file data, which consists of public records such as:
- Name and address
- Party registration
- Voting history (whether an individual voted, not how they voted)
To supplement voter files, campaigns often purchase additional consumer data from commercial brokers, including:
- Estimated household income and net worth
- Purchase history and consumer preferences
- Media consumption and subscription data
- Lifestyle indicators and interests
- Vehicle and property ownership records
- Charitable and political donation history
Behavioral data may also be incorporated, such as:
- Website browsing activity
- Mobile app usage
- Location data
- Streaming and connected TV viewing patterns
These datasets are combined to create profiles that inform messaging strategy and outreach decisions.
Targeted Political Messaging
Targeted political advertising, often referred to as microtargeting, uses statistical models to estimate voter preferences, likelihood of turnout, and responsiveness to specific issues.
Academic research has examined the effectiveness of this approach. A 2023 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that messages tailored to psychological traits can outperform generic messaging in certain contexts.
Researchers concluded that psychological and behavioral targeting may increase message effectiveness, particularly when combined with large datasets and predictive modeling.
These findings have raised questions among policymakers and researchers about transparency, accountability, and the long-term impact of targeted political messaging on public discourse.
Message Fragmentation and Transparency
Unlike traditional broadcast advertising, targeted digital ads are often visible only to selected audiences. Different voters may receive different messages from the same campaign, based on inferred interests or characteristics.
This fragmentation can make it more difficult for journalists, regulators, and the public to observe and evaluate the full scope of a campaign’s messaging strategy.
Researchers and election integrity organizations have noted that limited visibility into targeted ads can complicate fact-checking and public accountability.
Location-Based Targeting Practices
Some political organizations have used location-based advertising techniques, including geofencing. Geofencing allows advertisers to deliver messages to devices that have entered a defined geographic area.
In reported cases, political groups have applied geofencing around specific venues, such as places of worship or public events, to reach audiences associated with those locations. Devices entering the defined area may later receive targeted ads across multiple platforms.
These practices generally rely on commercial advertising infrastructure and are legal under current federal law. Consent requirements vary depending on platform policies and state regulations.
Growth in Digital Political Advertising
Political spending has increased significantly over recent election cycles. The 2024 election cycle was projected to exceed 12 billion dollars in total spending, with a growing share allocated to digital advertising.
Connected TV advertising has become a major channel for political messaging, allowing campaigns to reach viewers through streaming platforms using data-driven targeting.
Public disclosures indicate that political organizations from across the political spectrum rely on data vendors and analytics firms to support these efforts.
Data Vendors and Campaign Infrastructure
Campaigns use a range of vendors to manage voter data and targeting, including:
- Firms specializing in voter databases and analytics
- Advertising platforms that support targeted delivery
- Data brokers that aggregate consumer and behavioral information
Some vendors serve clients across party lines, while others focus on specific political organizations or ideological groups.
Registration requirements for data brokers vary by state, and oversight of political data use remains limited at the federal level.
Disinformation and Targeted Reach
Researchers have documented how targeted advertising infrastructure can be used to distribute misleading or false information to specific audiences.
Foreign influence operations, such as those identified during the 2016 election, used similar advertising tools to reach targeted voter segments. Domestic actors may also use targeted messaging to amplify misleading claims or suppress voter participation.
The combination of detailed data profiles and targeted delivery can make it difficult for false information to be identified and addressed at scale.
Legal and Regulatory Context
In the United States, there is no comprehensive federal law governing how political campaigns collect, purchase, or use voter and consumer data.
- Federal election law primarily addresses campaign finan*